Introduction
This book presents the concepts of “to, with, and by” (Mooney 1990) as
approaches to teaching from both the reader’s and writer’s perspectives. It
also emphasizes the importance of making the links between reading and
writing through intentional instruction across all approaches in the middle
and upper grades. This was our intent and challenge as we invited colleagues
to contribute chapters to this book. Authors were encouraged to maintain
their own writing style, share their experiences, and present their
understandings of the practices or approaches to the teaching of reading and
writing. Editorial considerations were respectful of the different voices,
accepting that this may cause readers to change their reading style and pace
as they begin a new chapter. However, it is hoped that readers will enjoy the
range of dialogues they can create as they interact with the authors.
While
this publication comprises several voices and perspectives, it endeavors to
show the interdependence of the approaches and the inextricable links among
the various language modes, but especially those between reading and
writing. Although each chapter deals with a different approach, and separate
chapters focus on reading and on writing, this is purely an organizational
strategy to bring a particular section to the fore for detailed discussion.
Understanding the intent of each approach and its nature, benefits, and
practicalities needs to be considered in the context of the whole that is
greater than the sum of its parts. Although four key approaches are
addressed in this book, it is acknowledged that
other approaches, such as literature circles or reciprocal teaching, make
major contributions to a student’s development. The labels “to or by,
shared, guided, and independent” are umbrella terms and include some of the
specific practices promoted through these specific determinants. The chart
in Figure 1 underpins all chapters within the book. It is suggested that
readers use this as a reference when commencing a new chapter or when
reflecting on the place of any approach within those key to a comprehensive
literacy program. The introductory page for each part of this book also
provides a quick reminder of the approach in relation to the other three.
The layout of the chart is intentional and reflects relatively recent
changes in my understandings about the teacher’s role. My earlier diagrams
or
explanations differentiating among the approaches usually listed the
teaching approach in the left-hand column as the starting point and dominant
feature. The emphasis in this book is that all instruction, practice,
application, and much of the assessment should begin with and remain
centered on the learner. The intent and nature of the approach and of the
resources must be manipulated to enhance the learner and learning, not the
learner or the learning manipulated to “fit” the approach or the resource.
The teacher is the stage manager, ensuring that carefully selected resources
are presented in a manner that encourages and nurtures learning. So while
each chapter focuses on a particular approach, readers are urged to be
mindful that very few, if any, lessons will be exclusive to any one
approach. Each student’s commitment to (and success in) learning will
require the teacher to “change gears” and for one approach to slip to
another. What began as shared reading may become a guided session for the
remainder of the lesson as the students show themselves able
to overcome most of the challenges of the reading. In the same way, it is
likely that a guided writing lesson will include some independent writing,
when each student applies and extends some recently acquired strategies and
skills. However, in most cases the amount and nature of the changing support
within any one lesson will not cross more than one approach unless the
resource or task proves too be far too difficult or offers insufficient
challenge or opportunity for extension.
The use of learner-centered words in the first column, “self-awareness,”
“self-correcting,” “self-assessing,” and “self-improving,” keeps the focus
on the expected outcomes for the learner. These words also reflect the
sequence of effective learning when what is known through instruction,
practice, and application becomes the focus for assessment and the
springboard for meeting new challenges. The inclusion of the word “self ” is
also an important reminder that learning itself is not a gift that we can
give students or one that students can receive from anyone else. The gift
they can be given is being shown how to learn. Being shown how to learn does
not ensure that learning takes place. Each student must actively and
thoughtfully engage in the learning. The transition from being shown the
product of the learning through to being provided with opportunities to
practice and take ownership of the learning underpins the intent of the
approaches and of this book.
While reading to and writing for students are supportive approaches with a
more knowledgeable other taking the lead by modeling or demonstrating strategies, especially thinking patterns, the
learner’s role is not one of passive reception. The second column summarizes
some of the thinking that effective learning requires as the learner assumes
responsibility for exploring and overcoming challenges and becoming
comfortable with the new knowledge, understandings, and skills through to
being able to apply them in a range of contexts.
The amount and nature of support from the teacher, instructor, or coach
changes as the learner assumes responsibility. The third column shows that
the learner increases commitment and participates more actively in the
learning. The supportive, instructive role gradually changes into one of
guidance and then one of reflection as opportunities for increased or new
challenges are planned.
The role of the more knowledgeable other as described in the fourth column
includes constantly watching for moments when the learner teeters between
knowing and not knowing and then knowing at a deeper level or in new areas.
Wavering between the known and unknown can cause the learner some
discomfort, but the effective teacher is continually watching and listening,
ever-ready to provide just enough support and guidance to nudge the student
into the unknown without fear of failure or frustration.
The labeling of the approaches provides a quick reference or “shorthand”
code. However, it also has the potential to gloss over the importance of
ensuring that the student‘s learning leaves a residue of knowledge,
understandings, and skills worthy of the effort expended. Every lesson
should include some challenge, for without the “rub” of the unknown, no
learning can take place. Ascribing labels to the approaches has led to the
creation of definitive definitions of the approaches or sets of exclusive
procedures. These can cause teachers to become rigid in their implementation
of any one of the approaches. In such cases, the procedures assume more
importance than the fundamental premise of this book–the effectiveness of
any approach is the degree to which it supports continuous and successful
learning and application within and by each student.
The successful selection and adaptation of any instructional approach is
dependent on the teacher’s understanding of each student’s competencies and
interests as well as experiences contributing to the learner’s perception of
him- or herself as a reader or writer. Most students moving into
intermediate grades are competent in strategies for basic decoding,
comprehension, and composition strategies. However, the greater range of
texts, especially those in the more specific content areas, and the
expectations of speedier reading and writing of longer and more complex texts present new challenges in all
areas of reading and writing development.
Readers who have made steady progress in the early stages come to Grade 3
with an understanding of their role as meaning makers and with an acceptance
that their meaning may differ from that of other readers. They understand
how
the essential rhythm of predicting and confirming and, where necessary,
selfcorrecting
enables comprehension to the point of being able to restate what
they have read in their own words. Re-reading to increase fluent reading
with
sufficient pace and expression to maintain a meaningful dialogue with the
author
will be well established. Their knowledge and use of a wide range of sound
and
letter patterns, common affixes, and the main word functions will bring
sufficient
confidence for reading unfamiliar grade level texts to complete assignments
as
well as texts composed for pleasure. Students working at third grade
understand
the relationships among their topic, form, audience, and purpose when
planning,
drafting, and revising their writing. However, as with all strategies and
skills
mentioned in this section, further development through intentional planned
instruction is necessary.
These skills and strategies form a foundation that needs to be nurtured and
extended through the same passionate and focused planning, instruction,
practice, and assessment that supported the earlier learning experiences.
Challenges in the increasing range of texts and higher expectations in
exploring
and understanding the reader’s and the writer’s role include the following:
■ Understanding the purpose and features of a range of writing forms in
order to pursue interests and successfully research and record ideas
and information in all curriculum areas
■ Integrating decoding and encoding strategies to the point of
automaticity
in order to attend to deeper levels of understanding than those
previously accessed or recorded
■ Considering topics, themes, or issues from more than one perspective
in order to engage in a more critical dialogue with the author or to
provoke the same within the reader
■ Exploring and evaluating techniques that capture and sustain a reader’s
attention
■ Maintaining focus when working with several texts, including longer
and more complex works in a variety of subjects and styles
■ Evaluating the credibility and worth of what has been read or written.
In order to develop competencies to match the increasing demands of reading
and writing in the middle and upper grades, some adjustments need to be
made to the instruction that was probably delivered in earlier grades.
Despite
the usual trend to shorten the time devoted to reading and writing
instruction
in upper grades, more time is actually needed for a session using any one
of the approaches. This may mean that fewer groups can meet during a day
or only one or two approaches included in any reading and writing lesson.
However, it needs to be emphasized that the strategies from any approach
are applicable to instruction in all other curriculum areas. “Every
classroom
teacher has the direct responsibility for developing those reading skills
and
abilities essential for adequate comprehension within his particular area of
instruction, as well as for applying to his content field and make
functional
those skills and abilities being developed by teachers in other areas of
instruction” (Artley 1944, 464).
By the time students reach third grade, and progressively thereafter, those
feeling discouraged, confused, or overwhelmed by reading and/or writing or
by the expectations put upon them will have developed avoidance tactics.
They may become “passengers” within class or group situations, finding
excuses to absent themselves from group or one-on-one settings. Engagement
from every student in every lesson should be a critical consideration
when selecting the approach for any lesson. Some students will have learned
how to be the dominant voice in a discussion, justifying their opinions in
more detail than necessary, constantly interrupting or ignoring the views of
their peers. The role of being a respectful and active group member needs to
be included in each of the approaches. This instruction should include ways
of eliciting, exploring, and responding to the opinions, concerns, feelings,
and experiences of every group member.
Other changes necessary to the way the approaches are planned and
implemented
at the earlier levels include the selection of resources. Texts used
in each of the approaches need to reflect the burgeoning number of topics
covered as students progress through the grades and the increasing
challenges
in writing style, vocabulary, layout, length, form, graphics, concepts,
and expected outcomes. Students should not be expected to write in genres
or to use techniques that have not been modeled, demonstrated, explained,
and practiced in supported and guided lessons. Material used in each of
the approaches should reflect that which the students are expected to read
and/or write by and for themselves. This means, for instance, that
textbooks,
including those from content areas, need to be used in read to and write for
and shared reading and writing sessions as well as during guided and
independent
activities.
Whatever approach is selected as the starting point or focus of a lesson,
the
instruction should reflect the following:
■ Attainable targets and clear success criteria, understood by the learner
■ Formative and summative assessment, identifying achievements and
setting new targets
■ Evidence-based practices: explicit modeling, demonstrating, and explaining
followed by supervised and supported practice and application
and then independent application and extension
■ Material that supports the targets and has relevance for the learners
■ A coordinated sequence of skills and strategies, congruent with state
and district requirements
■
Sufficient duration to enable learning to occur without frustration
■ Settings (including small groups) that encourage full and continuous
participation from each student
■ Flexibility of pace and grouping to allow for differentiated instruction.
This book seeks to help teachers reflect on their understandings of and
practices in developing readers and writers. We do not claim expert status
or
exclusivity in any way. We are sharing our current understandings in a
learning
journey that continues to explore new vistas.
